WHAT IS THE POTENTIAL OF ICT INTEGRATION IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION IN GHANA?

ICT is an inevitable component of our life in today’s world. We mostly communicate, work and initiate leisure activities using ICT. Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) can be defined as “anything which allows us to get information, to communicate with each other, or to have an effect on the environment using electronic or digital equipment” (Siraj-Blatchford & Siraj-Blatchford, 2003). 

Today ICT is an element in all stages of education; and early childhood education is no exception. Examples of ICT are desktop, laptop, and handheld computers, digital cameras and digital video cameras; creativity and communication software and tools; the Internet; telephones, fax machines, mobile telephones, tape recorders; interactive stories, simulated environments, and computer games; programmable toys and “control” technologies; videoconferencing technologies and closed-circuit television; data projectors, electronic whiteboards, et cetera.

Electronic media has unsurprisingly become a constant presence in the lives of the children around the world. “Research done on the learning of North American and European children has discovered that as much as 80 per cent of knowledge they gain by the age of 11 is learnt from the non-print media outside the classroom.” Shah and Godiyal 2017, state three implications in this finding. “First, national education systems must reflect what is, without any doubt, an incontrovertible fact, namely, that the interdependence of the media and education is here to stay. Second, its force of unlocking of mankind’s potential, while still imperfectly understood, must be analyzed and managed. Third and last, there exists no more fertile ground, on which the electronic media can become a force for good as much as for ill, than the mind of a child.” 

Damaging effects of ICT tools on young children include anti-social behaviour, laziness towards brain work, among others. There is also the exposure to unsuitable content including violence, inappropriate sexual behaviour and stereotypes. Growing addiction to computers are distractions to learning and other more important activities including play. "An argument opposing early introduction of ICT is that as children learn through their bodies, computers are not developmentally appropriate" (Haugland 2000).

Shah and Godiyal ascertains that the debate regarding ICT use in early years remains unresolved as indicated by a Scottish literature review of ICT in early childhood education. This review suggested that "a scarcity of good quality research findings on using ICT in educational settings for pre-school children” (Stephen & Plowman 2002). Experts have used, the developmental appropriateness, quality of learning environment and other health issues as measures towards determining whether or not it is safe for a child to include ICT in the learning process at an early stage. Many early childhood educationists criticise and reject the “Fool’s Gold” (Shah and Godiyal. 2017) critical approach. Some authors state that similar concerns about harmful cognitive, emotional, physical, and social effects on children have accompanied the emergence of every new technology from the advent of alphabetic print, to the proliferation of film, television, and video games (Linderoth, Lantz-Andersson & Lindstrom 2002; Luke 1999).

Bolstad 2004 states three reasons why ICT is highly essential in early childhood education. These are listed below:

1. ICT already has an effect on the people and environments that surround young children’s learning. 
2. These technologies offer new opportunities to strengthen many aspects of early childhood education practice.
3. There is support and interest across the whole education sector for the development and integration of ICT into education policy, curriculum, and practice.

HOW IS TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT APPLIED IN GHANAIAN BASIC SCHOOLS?

“In order for a company to achieve quality, they need quality leadership.” This was one of Philip Corsby (2001)’s philosophical contributions to the concept of Total Quality Management. In 1964, he gained recognition for his “Zero Defects” concept which stipulated continuous improvement and positive attitude in service. His counterpart, Dr. Joseph M. Juran (1991) is most renowned for coming up with the phrase, “fitness for use or purpose” “The importance of this idea is that a product or service can meet its specification and yet not be fit for its purpose” Sampson (2015: 12). In other words, a goal (in the form of a product or service) may be achieved, and yet, lack purpose.

Total Quality Management is a management model which places emphasis on the importance of each stage in the chain of production. This model speaks to both product and service oriented management systems. Though Total Quality Management is widely accepted and many people may feel as though, and in turn claim that they are part of the quality movement, “there is a huge gap between the rhetoric and real understanding.” Sampson (2015: 3). This means that; in theory, the concept is widely existent and accepted, whereas in practice, it is lacking. Suffice it to say that the concept has not been properly translated into the educational system.

Total Quality Management has been translated into education in its raw form with little regard for the uniqueness of school goers as products. According to Zelada (2013: 6), “there is no relationship between school effectiveness and input factors”. In Ghana, as it is in many other parts of the world, education is constantly faced with the challenge of wholesale approach to teaching and learning when in fact, each child has a unique ability and need. A fundamental cause of this system is the lack of adequate human resources. In the United States, the ratio of teacher to child was 1:26.8 in public schools in 2011-2012 (National Center for Education Statistics). Abubakr (2016: 718) states that “One of the weaknesses of such a perspective is in its concentration on the student as a customer whereas TQM in education should concern the customer beyond students.” These issues raised, among others which will be tackled subsequently, are among the factors undermining the total achievement of Total Quality Management in Education. This brings us to the objectives of the study.

Quality can be achieved through successful management; much of contemporary thinking on this aspect focuses on total quality management (TQM). "Total quality management is a philosophy that is driven by the constant attainment of client satisfaction through the continuous improvement of all organizational processes" (Robbins, 2003). In the school setting, students and their parents should be satisfied with educational services. The school should render bearing in mind that the students are paying for the services that. For this reason, Total Quality Management should be implemented in the education system. In a sense, the student is the teacher’s customer, as the recipient of educational services. In this case, the teacher and the school are suppliers of effective learning tools and systems to the student who is the primary customer.

The school is responsible for providing the long-term educational welfare of students by how to invest in their lifelong learning processes. Also, Total Quality Management has it that everyone in the organization must aim towards continuous improvement. Senge (2000) has suggested that those organizations which keep growing are “learning organizations” where people, processes and systems are dedicated to continuous improvement. In order to be true learning organizations, schools must have the resources needed for constant improvement and communication with their stakeholders.

WHAT IS CULTURAL APPROPRIATION?

Cultural Appropriation sounds like a very simple term: Culture+ Appropriation. However, the ideas and meanings that it brings to bear are some of the most complicated that the world deals with as far as international communication is concerned.

Cultural Appropriation has been used to mean many things: The word, as explained by Wikipedia and dictionary.com, is the act of taking elements of one culture and practicing it in another cultural setting by members of the other culture. This makes no specific reference to whether one culture or the other is a ‘major’ or a ‘minor’ culture. Its opposite, Cultural Misappropriation on the other hand is the act of adopting elements of one culture and practicing it in another cultural setting by members of the other culture with the intention of mocking the adopted culture. The original meaning of cultural misappropriation does not make any specific references to a major or a minor culture.

However, typical of International Relations, the power play between peripheral and semi-peripheral countries features prominently in the case of Cultural Appropriation such that the term ‘Cultural Appropriation’ has been used to mean ‘Cultural Misappropriation’, specifically practiced by major cultures against minor cultures. Consequently, the real meaning of Cultural Appropriation has been rendered almost non-existent, while the misappropriation of major cultures by people from minor cultures have been rendered almost insignificant.

Practically, Cultural Appropriation is an idea about the misrepresentation of minor cultures by people from major cultures in the country of the major cultures, with the sole aim to ridicule the minor culture. - Nothing else seems to matter as far as the meaning of the term is concerned.

The term Cultural Appropriation in itself is not problematic. However, its influence on inter-cultural relationships among individuals and small groups, as well as the sensitivity it sparks especially on the internet is daunting.

Indeed, Cultural Appropriation-the adoption of elements of one culture by a person from another and used in the setting of the other’s culture, is inevitable. However, this simple day to day practice spotted around the world, has become the source of hypersensitive inter-cultural debates.

THE FIFTH THEORY OF THE PRESS IS DIALECTICALLY SUPERIOR TO THE EARLIER FOUR. DISCUSS.

 

The fifth theory of the press is the theory of Development Communication. Development Communication has been called a type of marketing and public opinion research; a form of emancipation. As a form of communication, the purpose of Development Communication is change. From political to social and economic among others, Development Communication aims at achieving change by influencing attitudes.

The Press has been called many things, globally. From the fourth arm of government in democracies to watchdog of the government, these descriptions are far from being false and come with numerous responsibilities.

The Press is the news media- the collection of the organisations and agencies that collect the news, process and publish it for public consumption.

Like any organisation and or profession, the media or press has theories that guide its operations. They include the Authoritarian Theory, the Libertarian Theory, the Social Responsibility Theory, the Soviet Totalitarian Theory and the Development Communication Theory. The first four theories were developed between the 16^th and 20^th century. The fifth theory, however, emerged with modernism and is considered transcendent to the assumptions underlying the earlier four theories. The details of each theory are explained below:

The Totalitarian Theory which developed in the 16^th and 17^thCentury is one which supports the policies of the government in power. The press that operates under this theory typically favours the ruling power of the day. Its policies allows for extensive governmental control of what is published as news and what is left out. This allows for government censoring of news items. In this system, the press is supportive of government and advocates for it. Under strict totalitarian systems, journalists or press men who question activities of government are punished, and media houses are scruitinised. Examples of countries that are supportive of the totalitarian system are China and Singapore. The media supports the government in its attempt to develop and stablise the economy.

The Libertarian Theory on the other hand is a sharp contrast to the totalitarian. “It is generally traced back to England and the American colonies of the seventeenth century.”This system supports freedom of the press, which in turn is representative of the voice of the citizens. The libertarian press sides with the people against government misconducts; however, their main focus is to acquire and provide to the public, information that is comprehensive andfair. The libertarian press speaks to both government sources and ordinary citizens in search for answers.

The Communist or Social Responsibility Theory of the press was born from Carl Max’s Communism. Supporting the socialist form of government, the media is used as a government tool. No questions are asked of government activities and communication is one-sided as message isconstantly carried from the governmentto the people. The media under this system is owned and controlled by the state, and its main purposes are to inform, to educate and sell.

The fourth theory of the press is the soviet totalitarian which developed in the Soviet Union and seeks to continue the dictatorship of the Soviet Socialist System.

The Development Communication theory is indeed clearly different from the four earlier theories.This theory has development at the core of its structuring.The modern society by which it arose has characteristics distinctive from the previous era that gave birth to the previous theories. The modern society is wider, more complicated and includes more players than the decades before its era.Among other unique characteristics, its definitions of development are more complex and it features strong change ethics.From social change through education to politics, the development journalist must serve purposive information that ultimately bridges the gap of underdevelopment. “Because the problem of underdeveloped region was believed to be an information problem, media communications was presented as the instrument that would lead directly and play a central role to solve it.”Itana, 2014.

A major distinction between the development communication theory and the earlier theories are the three main features on which it is anchored:

·         Development Communication is purposive communication, value-laden and pragmatic

·         It is goal-oriented

·         In addition to its economic goals, it is social, political, cultural and also about moral values.

It is important to note that the four earlier theories had characteristics that were unique to each of them. However, none focused on the purpose of driving change quite as closely as Development Communication does.Besides, while the liberal theory would be closest in practice to Development Communication, it is not as development oriented in its reportage, a feature (or lack of it) that renders it a lesser player in the development of any nation.

A typical development journalist in the area of education for instance, may follow developments in the education sector of his or her country in the bid to influence quality by questioning policies, following progress, speaking to teachers and school children aside leaders and policy makers and following up on response after publication. This will probably be repeated until there are real signs of development in the sector.In the totalitarian theory which is the biggest opposition to development communication, questions of the relevance of policies and progress will dare not be asked. The libertarian journalist who is the closest in likeness to the development journalistis likely to report on activities in the education sector and may ask some questions but not with the same intensity and demand for answers as the development journalist would.

Development Communication has what is called “the five Is”. They are: Inform, Instruct, Inspire, Insist and Involve”. These are an emphasis on the citizen-friendly methods of development communication in its approach towards reporting for change. Inform the public, instruct the public on ways to achieve desired development by way of influence, inspire the public to be involved and insist on their involvement.

It is not surprising therefore, that Development Communication would be thought of as superior in the dialectical debate concerning the five theories of the press.

SOURCES

·         The Characteristics of Development Paradigms: Modernization, Dependency, & Multiplicity. AmeyuEtana, 2014 Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia

·         www.books.google.com/four-theories-of-the-press

BOOK REVIEW: INVESTIGATIVE REPORTING BY DAVID SPARK

 

Author: David Spark,

Title of Book: Investigative Reporting, A study in technique.

Publisher: CQ Press, a division of the Congressional Quarterly Inc.

ISBN No.: 9780240515434

Number of Pages: 271 

REVIEW

In Spark’s Investigative Reporting, he provides deep insights into the profession of investigative journalism. He explores all avenues in the investigative work, arming readers with fore knowledge on all the pros and cons of the profession.

With sub-headings such as “what an investigative reporter needs”, “the qualities required” and “the path to investigation” among others, Investigative Reporting provides close guidance to both amateur and experienced practitioners of investigative journalism. In fact, the book may correctly be referred to as a practical hand book for investigative reporters.

Spark makes a fundamental point within the first few paragraphs of the book, writing that investigation is only a foundation for all news reportage and not a reserve of investigative journalists. He further writes that all reporters should do what “so called investigative journalists” do and seek all sides as well as ask all relevant questions concerning a story.

We encounter a distinction between proper journalism and straight forward journalism as written by Tom Bower in his Book, Maxwell; the final verdict. To throw insight in this distinction, Spark introduces an analysis of Ex President Clinton’s statement in October 1998. The analysis pointed that the statement, “there is not a single solitary shred of evidence of anything dishonest in my public life.” was meant to mislead Clinton’s audience, and it turned out exactly that way. A straight forward journalist is likely to report that statement just as it is said; however, a proper journalist, with a generous amount of skepticism would analyse this statement and ask questions which would lead to the exposure of the intention of the statement as was done in the seminar brochure in which it was analysed. While the straight forward or “normal” journalist depends on official sources, the investigative journalist moves beyond those and contact unofficial sources. Spark stresses the importance of unofficial sources.

The book distinguishes between three types of reporters: general reporters who produce reports such as daily news, special reporters who have specialised in a field and therefore know whom to speak with and how to reach hard-to-get information is such field as well as reporters with an investigative turn of mind. These reporters can be either specialised or general. However, they take more time and ask more questions than their other colleagues, resulting in more revealed truths and wowing angles in their work. They face more challenges and also get more public approval when their work is done.

Spark tells that “Reporters keen on investigative work side with the less powerful and the forgotten.” He also writes extensively about the qualities that are common to successful investigative reporters including the following: they have a sense of politics and history; they are obsessive but not too obsessive; they read extensively; they are outraged and emotional about wrong doing; they have a moral conviction to keep going, and so on.

On another hand, Spark lectures on some of the experiences that a reporter experiences on the way to becoming an investigator. He points out that for all of those who choose the path straight from college, those who venture into it from other fields and those who understudy others before starting to practice on their own, these huddles run through: some reporters get killed on the job; some get the least to no support from bosses, co-workers and family; to mention a few.

Drawing from the experiences of many well-known journalists, Spark has identified the many skills, special circumstances and common factors involved in different types of investigations. It is particularly relevant, how he has elaborated on the processes in getting uninterested informants to give information.

He doesn’t leave out the dangers involved in the profession and the strains with legal systems. He reveals among other facts that it is illegal to seek personal information from a source that is not authorized to give that information. One may have noticed through re-occurrence that many investigative journalists would make use of any source, so far as some reliable information can be obtained from the source. The trend seems to be that the illegality of this act is only valid when the investigation is unsuccessful; however, a successful investigation that reveals truth many a times, gets away with the act. Sparks also makes a recommendation for further readings on laws for journalists in investigation.

Spark’s book has been called the most comprehensive book on investigative journalism. It is undoubtedly one of the very best!